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目录 contents

    摘要

    S-谷胱甘肽化(S-glutathionylation)是谷胱甘肽和靶蛋白半胱氨酸残基之间形成混合二硫化物的过程.由于其能调节靶蛋白功能,因此也属于蛋白质翻译后修饰. 与其相对应,蛋白质的去谷胱甘肽化可由谷氧还蛋白(Grx)催化. 因此,S-谷胱甘肽化修饰也被认为是一种防止蛋白质半胱氨酸巯基发生不可逆修饰的保护机制. 由于该修饰还会改变含有巯基的氧化还原敏感型蛋白的结构与功能,因此也属于蛋白质功能调节的重要方式. 哺乳动物细胞中S-谷胱甘肽化水平的改变与许多病理机制有关,但S-谷胱甘肽化在植物中的研究还处于起步阶段. 本文综述了蛋白质的S-谷胱甘肽化的反应机制、检测方法、生理作用的相关研究进展,最后还提出今后研究中要解决的重要问题.

    Abstract

    S-glutathionylation, the formation of disulphide of glutathione and target protein cysteine residues, is a post-translational modification that modulates the function of target protein. Besides its formation, the deglutathionylation of protein can also be reversibly catalyzed by glutaredoxin (Grx). The S-glutathionylation modification is also considered to be a protective mechanism for preventing cysteine residues of protein from irreversible oxidation. Since it changes the structure and function of the redox-sensitive thiol-containing protein, S-glutathionylation therefore is a mechanism responsible for the regulation of protein function. The changes in the levels of S-glutathionylation in mammalian cells are associated with many pathologic mechanisms. However, the research of S-glutathionylation in plants is just the beginning. In this paper, the research progress in mechanism, detecting method, and physiological action of S-glutathionylation were reviewed. Finally, the important problems in the future research were also put forward.

    谷胱甘肽(GSH:γ-Glu-Cys-Gly)是由3种氨基酸组成的、生物体细胞内最丰富的巯基化合物,广泛存在于哺乳动物、植物和微生[1,2]. 在生物组织中,谷胱甘肽可以以还原型谷胱甘肽(GSH)的形式存在,当受到氧化刺激时,还原型谷胱甘肽转化为氧化型谷胱甘肽(GSSG)[1]. 因此,谷胱甘肽氧化和还原状态之间的转换对于细胞正常代谢和存活是至关重要的,且谷胱甘肽氧化还原稳态也是细胞生理代谢、信号传导和转录调控的关键因[1,2,3]. 进一步的研究发现,氧化胁迫还可以导致蛋白质的可逆S-谷胱甘肽化(S-glutathionylation)修饰,即谷胱甘肽和靶蛋白半胱氨酸残基之间形成混合二硫化物的过程,因此属于蛋白质翻译后修[2,4].

    在活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)和活性氮(reactive nitrogen species,RNS)信号通路中,谷胱甘肽可作为中枢部分,通过自身氧化还原状态的改变调节相关代[5]. 在生物体内,蛋白质中巯基的氧化还原状态很大程度上决定了它们的生物学特性,并涉及蛋白质结构、酶催化活性和氧化还原信号转导[2,3,6]. 谷胱甘肽比其他氨基酸更容易被氧化,其氧化产物还可以被谷氧还蛋白(glutaredoxin; Grx) (硫醇-二硫化物氧化还原酶家族成员)[3]等细胞内还原系统所还原. 上述特性提示谷胱甘肽化可以作为一种蛋白质翻译后修饰来参与细胞信号转导.

    近年来,随着对ROS和RNS介导的氧化还原信号的深入研[3,4],S-谷胱甘肽化修饰受到广泛关注.已经知道,S-谷胱甘肽化的修饰位点一般是蛋白质上的半胱氨酸残基,通常该残基位于酶催化中心或蛋白质与蛋白质的连接部[2,4]. 含有巯基的蛋白质或谷胱甘肽可被氧化剂活化,进一步发生S-谷胱甘肽化,该过程可能转导了由ROS和RNS产生的氧化还原信[3,4]. 除细胞内环境影响外,S-谷胱甘肽化的特异性发生还取决于巯基的敏感性以及与巯基反应的硫醇基团的活[2,3,4,7,8]. 已经知道,S-谷胱甘肽化修饰在动物和微生物中的相关研究已取得较大进展,但在植物中的研究尚处于初级阶段.本文针对S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的反应机制、检测方法、研究进展以及生理功能进行综述,并提出S-谷胱甘肽化修饰在动物、植物和微生物细胞信号转导过程中发挥的重要作用.

    图1
                            蛋白质S-谷胱甘肽化的机制[2,3]

    图1 蛋白质S-谷胱甘肽化的机[2,3]

    Fig. 1 Mechanisms of protein S-glutathionylation[2,3]

    a:硫醇-二硫化物交换途径; bc:次磺酸中间体介导途径;d:次磺酰胺中间体介导途径;ef:硫自由基介导途径; gh:硫代亚磺酸酯中间体介导途径; ij:亚硝基化合物中间体介导途径; k:谷氧还蛋白(Grx) 催化途径.

  • 1 蛋白质S-谷胱甘肽化的反应机制

    1
  • 1.1 蛋白质S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的反应机制

    1.1

    迄今所提出的S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的机制是基于含有巯基的蛋白质或GSH的氧化还原反[2,3,4,9],通常这些反应可以由ROS或RNS所引发. S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的各种发生方[2,3,4,10,11,12,13]具体见图1. S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的反应机制主要是:基于含有巯基的蛋白质和氧化型谷胱甘肽(GSSG)之间所发生的硫醇-二硫化物交换(图1a);细胞内的ROS和/或RNS诱导产生蛋白次磺酸(P-SOH)或谷胱甘肽次磺酸(GSOH)中间体,从而发生修饰(图1bc);次磺酰胺中间体介导的S-谷胱甘肽化修饰(图1d); ROS和/或RNS诱导产生硫自由基,进而通过自由基重组或与硫醇盐反应发生修饰(图1ef);硫代亚磺酸酯与硫醇发生反应生成二硫键和水,从而发生修饰(图1gh);与次磺酸类似,ROS和/或RNS可诱导产生亚硝基谷胱甘肽(GSNO)或亚硝基蛋白(P-SNO)中间体, 从而发生修饰(图1ij);谷氧还蛋白催化的S-谷胱甘肽化修饰(图1k).

  • 1.2 谷氧还蛋白(Grx)催化谷胱甘肽化修饰的反应机制

    1.2

    Grx催化的修饰过程,可能依赖于细胞内的氧化还原环[3]. 当细胞受到氧化应激刺激后,Grx可以催化蛋白质发生谷胱甘肽化(图1 k);但当细胞内的氧化信号减弱时,Grx也可以催化蛋白质的去谷胱甘肽[3,14]. 例如,Grx1通过催化内皮细胞一氧化氮合酶的去谷胱甘肽化,从而调节炎症细胞内的信号转[14]. 此外,Grx1介导的白介素1β半胱氨酸残基的去谷胱甘肽化还可以抑制白介素1β的活[5]. O’Brien[15]证实,小鼠线粒体内的丙酮酸脱氢酶的谷胱甘肽化修饰可被Grx2所逆转;类似的是,小鼠线粒体α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶的去谷胱甘肽化修饰也是由Grx2催[16].

    Grx可以催化蛋白质发生谷胱甘肽化修[1,3],其过程主要是Grx与GSH形成酶-二硫化物中间体(Grx-SSG),然后该中间产物与含有巯基的蛋白质(PSH)发生反应,从而发生谷胱甘肽化修饰(图1k). 如图2所示,蛋白质-SSG二硫化物的去谷胱甘肽化也可由Grx催化,并划分为单巯基催化机制(仅需要1个Cys活性位点)或双巯基催化机制(需要2个Cys活性位点). 在上述过程中,双巯基催化机制涉及到酶活性位点上形成分子内二硫化物的副反[3]. 与双巯基催化机制相比,单巯基机制更为普[3].

    图2
                            谷氧还蛋白介导的去谷胱甘肽化修饰机制[1,3]

    图2 谷氧还蛋白介导的去谷胱甘肽化修饰机[1,3]

    Fig. 2 Glutaredoxin-induced mechanism of deglutathionylation[1,3]

  • 2 S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的主要检测方法

    2
  • 2.1 35S-Cys放射性标记法

    2.1

    Eaton[17]研究报道,组织细胞用含35S的半胱氨酸培养,在代谢过程中使得含有半胱氨酸残基的蛋白质被标记.为了检测蛋白质S-谷胱甘肽化,首先需要分离出具有放射性标记的蛋白质,分离过程通常使用非还原性的SDS-PAGE,然后通过放射自显影等技术来检测. 该方法可用于检测总蛋白质的S-谷胱甘肽化,但并不适用于被标记蛋白质的鉴定. 在实际应用中35S-Cys放射性标记法还可以与蛋白质组学方法相结合,以此获得更多被修饰蛋白质的信息,包括具体的修饰位[18].

  • 2.2 生物素标记法

    2.2

    生物素标记法是一种应用比较广泛的检测S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的方法. 首先,生物素与GSH分子的游离氨基连接,使得GSH被生物素[19]. 生物素氨基己酸3-磺基-N-羟基琥珀酰亚胺酯与还原型谷胱甘肽、氧化型谷胱甘肽或谷胱甘肽乙酯反应,生成生物素化的谷胱甘肽乙酯(BioGEE),然后经SDS-PAGE分离,转移到PVDF膜;进一步将PVDF膜在结合有链霉抗生物素的辣根过氧化物酶中孵育,最后使用ECL蛋白质印迹检测试剂显色,以此检测蛋白质谷胱甘肽化. 该过程采用亲和纯化,确保仅存在被修饰的蛋白质,有助于排除假阳性实验结果. 另外,此实验必须在没有还原剂的实验条件下进行.

  • 2.3 蛋白质组学法

    2.3

    近年来,蛋白质组学的方法被不断应用于谷胱甘肽化蛋白质的检测. 最新的研究证明,基质辅助激光解吸电离飞行时间质谱(matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF-MS)法可用于检测S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的蛋白[20,21,22].

  • 2.4 通过伊红标记的氧化型谷胱甘肽和SDS-PAGE检测蛋白质S-谷胱甘肽化

    2.4

    Coppo[23]研究证明,伊红标记的氧化型谷胱甘肽(eosin-glutathione disulfide,E-GSSG)也可以研究蛋白质的S-谷胱甘肽化修饰. 由于自发猝灭荧光,E-GSSG以二硫化物形式存在时几乎没有荧光,经谷氧还蛋白偶联介导S-谷胱甘肽化后,通过波长520 nm的光激发,形成伊红标记的还原型谷胱甘肽(eosin glutathione,E-GSH),E-GSH可以在波长545 nm处发射易被检测的荧光. 不同浓度的伊红-谷胱甘肽化的牛血清白蛋白(eosin-glutathionylated albumin,E-GS-BSA)和单独牛血清白蛋白(BSA)经520 nm光激发后,E-GS-BSA形成E-GS-H,而BSA不发生变化.在非还原SDS-PAGE的条件下证明,E-GSH浓度与信号强度呈正相关,而BSA的则不显示任何信号. 由于E-GSSG与GSSG的反应性是类似的,因此可以利用E-GSSG的这一特性检测蛋白质的S-谷胱甘肽化修饰.

  • 2.5 抗体法检测S-谷胱甘肽化

    2.5

    S-谷胱甘肽化修饰也可使用抗谷胱甘肽抗体检[24]. 由于在检测过程中不需要预处理,因此抗谷胱甘肽抗体可以检测在各种生理条件下的S-谷胱甘肽化修饰蛋白. 由于抗谷胱甘肽抗体表现出较低的灵敏度,因此极大地限制了S-谷胱甘肽化检测的准确性. 在检测过程中,这种局限性可以通过纯化蛋白质或富集靶蛋白来避免. 目前,这种方法仅适用于分析某种已知的S-谷胱甘肽化修饰蛋白.

  • 2.6 基于点击反应和蛋白质组学的方法检测S-谷胱甘肽化

    2.6

    针对鉴定S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的蛋白质,Feng[25]开发了一种基于“Clickable”探针和蛋白质组学结合的新方法. 该研究设计了一种“Clickable”探针:Alkynyl-containing GSH probe. 从细胞或组织中提取并富集的蛋白质经过一系列反应后,与“Clickable”探针发生点击反应,其产物用于LC-MS/MS分析,对LC-MS/MS的数据进行蛋白质组学分析,进而鉴定出发生S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的蛋白质. 在实验过程中,阳性对照采用过氧化氢预处理,阴性对照则用二硫苏糖醇预处理.

  • 3 S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的研究进展

    3

    S-谷胱甘肽化修饰可以通过调节蛋白质功能或活性来调控细胞内多种生理或生化过[2,4,14,26,27],它还可以作为含有巯基的蛋白质(特别是以巯基为活性基团的酶类)免受不可逆损伤的保护机[5,20,28]. 例如,S-谷胱甘肽化参与线粒体及柠檬酸循环过程中蛋白质翻译后修饰,进而调控能量代[29]. S-谷胱甘肽化修饰还可以提高组织细胞对药物毒性的耐性. 研究证明,谷氨酸半胱氨酸连接酶的S-谷胱甘肽化修饰提高了小鼠对扑热息痛诱导的肝毒性耐[30].

    最初的研究认为S-谷胱甘肽化只在氧化应激过程中发挥作用. 随着研究的深入,发现该修饰在正常生理状态下也发挥重要的作[31]. 已经知道,S-谷胱甘肽化修饰是细胞内蛋白质参与氧化还原信号转导的一种关键调节方[17,32]. 在哺乳动物细胞中,尽管相对于整个蛋白质组来讲,发生谷胱甘肽化的蛋白质的数量并不大,但已有研究证实了动物细胞中存在不少谷胱甘肽化的蛋白质. Ullevig[33]在小鼠巨噬细胞内检测到大约130个发生谷胱甘肽化修饰的蛋白质,涉及多种细胞功能:代谢、转录和翻译、蛋白质折叠、自由基清除、细胞运动以及细胞凋亡. 例如,3-磷酸甘油醛脱氢酶(glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase,GAPDH)活性位点上的半胱氨酸残基发生S-谷胱甘肽化修饰,导致其酶活性被抑[20],且保护了GAPDH免受不可逆的氧化损伤. 在患有坏死性小肠结肠炎的小鼠内皮细胞内,其一氧化氮合酶的谷胱甘肽化修饰则抑制了一氧化氮的合[14]. 白介素1β半胱氨酸残基的谷胱甘肽化修饰保护了白介素1β免受ROS介导的不可逆氧化损[5]. S-谷胱甘肽化可能取决于细胞内的ROS水[34]. 在低ROS水平的微环境,Grx催化蛋白激酶发生S-谷胱甘肽化修饰,从而激活蛋白激[34]. 另外,小鼠线粒体内α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶的谷胱甘肽化修饰的研究证明,其修饰提高了酶活性. 细胞系及动物体内蛋白质谷胱甘肽化修饰的研究结果总结于表1.

    在植物中,蛋白质谷胱甘肽化修饰的研究也取得一定的进展, 具体结果如表. 2其中,硫氧还原蛋白f(TRX f)是早期发现能够进行谷胱甘肽化修饰的植物蛋[35],它是叶绿体碳固定中氧化还原调节的关键组分. 在氧化胁迫下,谷胱甘肽化可保护硫氧还原蛋白免受ROS诱导的不可逆氧[35]. Ito[19]的研究结果显示,在拟南芥中大约有20个谷胱甘肽化的蛋白质,其中磷酸丙糖异构酶和醛缩酶两个已被明确鉴定. 另外,Lee[36]通过分离拟南芥的总蛋白质,并结合蛋白质组学技术鉴定了具有二硫键的蛋白质,但S-谷胱甘肽化的蛋白质数量较少. Dixon[37]研究鉴定出拟南芥中大约70种谷胱甘肽化的蛋白质,但不清楚其修饰的功能及其修饰位点.

    在微生物中,蛋白质谷胱甘肽化修饰的研究也已经取得了初步的进展. 其中,在酵[31,38]和细[39]中存在S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的蛋白质. 大规模蛋白质组学的研究数据也证明,在蓝藻中大约350个蛋白质发生了谷胱甘肽化修饰,并鉴定了125个修饰位[40]. Prinarakis[41]研究证实了S-谷胱甘肽化作为一种翻译后修饰参与控制了与病毒感染相关的细胞信号传导途径;在基孔肯雅病毒感染的细胞内,病毒诱导产生的氧化应激可以导致蛋白质发生谷胱甘肽化修饰,从而影响了病毒蛋白的功[27]. 关于植物和微生物蛋白谷胱甘肽化修饰的研究结果具体见表2.

    表1 细胞系及动物体内谷胱甘肽化蛋白的鉴定结果

    Table 1 Identified results of S-glutathionylated proteins in cell lines and animals

    实验材料靶蛋白修饰蛋白的功能修饰位点参考文献
    鸡(Gallus gallus)Cu, Zn超氧化物歧化酶保护四氧嘧啶介导的b细胞免于死亡C110,153[42]
    人(Homo sapiens)Cu, Zn超氧化物歧化酶阻止四氧嘧啶介导的b细胞死亡C111[43]
    鼠(Mus musculus)苹果酸脱氢酶降低苹果酸脱氢酶活性/[44]
    鼠(Mus musculus)肌酸激酶降低肌酸激酶活性C283[45]
    兔(Oryctolagus cuniculus)肌动蛋白影响聚合速率及结合原肌球蛋白的协调性C374[46]
    人(Homo sapiens)钙结合蛋白保护胰腺钙b细胞免于死亡C187[43]
    鼠(Mus musculus)组织蛋白酶K提高组织蛋白酶K活性C25[47]
    人(Homo sapiens)脂肪酸结合蛋白提高脂肪酸结合蛋白的水平/[48]
    人(Homo sapiens)热休克蛋白60下调热休克蛋白60水平/[48]
    人(Homo sapiens)细胞凋亡蛋白酶3调控β-细胞凋亡信号C22[49]
    鼠(Mus musculus)磷酸甘油醛脱氢酶抑制磷酸甘油醛脱氢酶活性C149[50]
    人(Homo sapiens)血红蛋白谷胱甘肽化蛋白含量升高C93[51]
    鼠(Mus musculus)肌动蛋白降低聚合速率及结合原肌球蛋白的协调性C374[52]
    兔(Oryctolagus cuniculus)钙释放通道受体蛋白提高钙离子释放速率,减少钙离子流失C3635[53]
    鼠(Mus musculus)线粒体酶复合体Ⅰ提高线粒体内超氧化物的形成C85,C86[54]
    牛(Bos taurus)线粒体酶复合体Ⅰ下调线粒体酶复合体Ⅰ的活性/[55]
    鼠(Mus musculus)线粒体酶复合体Ⅱ提高电子转运效率,减少电子流失C90[56]
    兔(Oryctolagus cuniculus)内质网钙ATP酶提高肌内质网钙三磷酸腺苷酶活性C674[57]
    鼠(Mus musculus)α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶抑制α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶活性/[58,59]
    鼠(Mus musculus)Ras蛋白提高蛋白质的合成/[57]
    鼠(Mus musculus)Ras蛋白

    提高Ras和Raf的结合以及提高蛋白激酶(ERK)

    活性

    C118[60]
    牛(Bos taurus)Ras蛋白提高Ras的酶活性C118[61]
    牛(Bos taurus)Ras蛋白提高ERK和Akt的瞬时磷酸化C118[62]
    鼠(Mus musculus)蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸化酶1B抑制蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸化酶活性/[63]
    兔(Oryctolagus cuniculus)3-磷酸甘油醛脱氢酶酶活性被抑制

    C150,

    C154

    [20]
    鼠(Mus musculus)一氧化氮合酶抑制一氧化氮合酶活性/[14]
    鼠(Mus musculus)白介素1β维持了生物体内白介素1β的生物活性C188[5]

    表1 细胞系及动物体内谷胱甘肽化蛋白的鉴定结果

    Table 1 Identified results of S-glutathionylated proteins in cell lines and animals

    鼠(Mus musculus)丙酮酸脱氢酶提高丙酮酸脱氢酶活性/[15]
    鼠(Mus musculus)肌钙蛋白提高对钙离子的敏感性C134[64]
    鼠(Mus musculus)腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶激活蛋白激酶活性/[34]
    鼠(Mus musculus)α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶提高α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶活性/[16]
    鼠(Mus musculus)Keap1蛋白激活Nrf2并提高谷胱甘肽s-转移酶基因的表达/[65]
    人(Homo sapiens)L-丝束蛋白影响细胞吞噬作用C460[66]
    人(Homo sapiens)胱硫醚-β-合酶提高胱硫醚-β-合酶活性C346[67]

    鼠(Mus musculus)

    有丝分裂原/细胞外信号

    调节激酶激酶1

    抑制了激酶的催化活性

    C1238

    [68]

    鼠(Mus musculus)丙酮酸脱氢酶提高丙酮酸脱氢酶活性/[15]
    鼠(Mus musculus)肌钙蛋白提高对钙离子的敏感性C134[64]
    鼠(Mus musculus)腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶激活蛋白激酶活性/[34]
    鼠(Mus musculus)α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶提高α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶活性/[16]
    鼠(Mus musculus)Keap1蛋白激活Nrf2并提高谷胱甘肽s-转移酶基因的表达/[65]
    人(Homo sapiens)L-丝束蛋白影响细胞吞噬作用C460[66]
    人(Homo sapiens)胱硫醚-β-合酶提高胱硫醚-β-合酶活性C346[67]

    鼠(Mus musculus)

    有丝分裂原/细胞外信号

    调节激酶激酶1

    抑制了激酶的催化活性

    C1238

    [68]

    注:/:无研究数据

    表2 植物、微生物以及病毒谷胱甘肽化蛋白的鉴定

    Table 2 Identification of S-glutathionylated proteins in plants,microorganism and virus

    物种蛋白质名称修饰的功能修饰位点参考文献

    拟南芥

    (Arabidopsis thaliana)

    磷酸丙糖异构酶

    抑制了磷酸丙糖异构酶的活性

    /

    [19]

    拟南芥

    (Arabidopsis thaliana)

    醛缩酶

    /

    /

    [19]

    拟南芥

    (Arabidopsis thaliana)

    脱氢抗坏血酸还原酶

    抑制了脱氢抗坏血酸还原酶的活性

    C6

    [69]

    拟南芥

    (Arabidopsis thaliana)

    硫氧还原蛋白f1

    降低了磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸羧化酶和

    磷酸甘油醛脱氢酶的活性

    C60

    [35]

    大豆(Glycine max)蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸酶抑制了蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸酶的活性C78,C176[70]
    蓝藻 (Cyanobacteria)过氧化物酶//[40]
    蓝藻 (Cyanobacteria)3-磷酸甘油酸脱氢酶//[40]

    基孔肯雅病毒

    (Chikungunya fever)

    非结构蛋白2(nsP2)

    提高非结构蛋白2活性

    C175,C214, C313,C462, C698,C755

    [25]

    HEK293细胞

    干扰素调节因子3

    调控IRF3-CBP相互作用,

    同时激活IFN β信号通路

    C222,C347

    C289,C371

    [41]

    注:/:无研究数据

  • 4 蛋白质S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的生理作用

    4
  • 4.1 S-谷胱甘肽化修饰在信号转导中的作用

    4.1

    许多生长、分化和凋亡所依赖的信号分子和转录因子都可能受到S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的调控. 已经知道,在应对氧化应激时,S-谷胱甘肽化修饰在调节蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸化酶1B (protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B,PTP1B)[63]和有丝分裂原/细胞外信号调节激酶激酶1 [MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase)/ERK (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase) kinase kinase 1,MEKK1][68]活性方面起到关键作用. 例如,在大鼠肺泡巨噬细胞NR8383的细胞系中,ROS诱导PTP1B和GSH之间形成二硫键而发生谷胱甘肽化修饰,并进一步影响下游信[63]. 甲萘醌介导的氧化应激所引发的S-谷胱甘肽化修饰还干扰了MEKK1亚结构域的功能,进而抑制了激酶的催化活[68]. 在内质网应激反应过程中,一些关键蛋白质的S-谷胱甘肽化修饰还能将氧化还原信号的转导与调控未折叠蛋白的应答过程相联[71]. S-谷胱甘肽化修饰还能参与调控与病毒感染相关的细胞信号传[41]. 干扰素调节因子3(IRF3)在非感染细胞中是谷胱甘肽化的,但在病毒感染后,IRF3经历由Grx催化的去谷胱甘肽化,从而参与了IRF3与CBP的相互作用的过程,这种相互作用可以激活干扰素基因的转[41]. 大豆蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸化酶(protein tyrosine phosphatases,PTPs)活性可被GSSG诱导的S-谷胱甘肽化修饰抑制,其发生修饰的位点是其两个半胱氨酸残[70]. 上述研究提示S-谷胱甘肽化修饰可能代表一种通用的信号转导调节机制.

  • 4.2 蛋白质的谷胱甘肽化修饰调控氧化还原稳态

    4.2

    在非洲寄生虫中,氧化胁迫诱发的S-谷胱甘肽化维持了细胞内氧化还原稳态,属于一种可逆的保护机[28]. 大肠杆菌Grx-4在体外被GSSG氧化生成分子内二硫化物和谷胱甘[72],这一过程有助于维持细胞内环境的氧化还原稳态. 拟南芥和衣藻的叶绿体f-型硫氧还原蛋白能够在体外进行S-谷胱甘肽[35],其发生蛋白质修饰的靶标是两个不同活性位点的半胱氨酸残基. 由于f-型硫氧还原蛋白特异性参与了碳固定酶的光调节,其谷胱甘肽化修饰维持了氧化应激条件下光合代谢内环境的氧化还原稳[35]. 杨树线粒体的硫氧还原蛋白在经过GSSG处理后,其在体外发生S-谷胱甘肽化修[73]. 上述研究表明,蛋白质的谷胱甘肽化修饰调控氧化还原稳态.

  • 4.3 S-谷胱甘肽化修饰与S-亚硝基化修饰的相互作用

    4.3

    S-亚硝基化和S-谷胱甘肽化主要作为ROS和RNS介导的信号转导机制,也是细胞应对氧化和/或亚硝化胁迫的一种保护机[74]. 在细胞受到氧化或亚硝化应激后,S-谷胱甘肽化和S-亚硝基化可能同时参与了氧化还原信号的转导过[2,4,74]. 两种修饰对蛋白质活性的影响可能均表现为激活或抑[2,4,74]. 此外,S-谷胱甘肽化和S-亚硝基化也可能发挥相反的作用,并通过竞争性的修饰某些特定半胱氨酸残基位点来实[64].

    S-谷胱甘肽化和S-亚硝基化之间也可以发生相互作用,从而形成混合的二硫化物,这种相互作用可用于将氧化和亚硝基化刺激转化成各种水平的细胞信号传导的功能反[7]. 由于具有同时引发S-谷胱甘肽化和S-亚硝基化两种蛋白质修饰的功能,亚硝基谷胱甘肽(GSNO)受到了广泛的关[7]. 在短期氧化/亚硝化胁迫中,S-谷胱甘肽化/去谷胱甘肽化和S-亚硝基化/去亚硝基化之间的协同作用的意义,在于它们可以产生细胞生存所需的代谢变化.为了进一步解析氧化/亚硝基化介导的蛋白质修饰的生物学功能,可以结合蛋白质的特异性修饰后对细胞或组织代谢组变化的影响来研究.

  • 5 展 望

    5

    尽管现有的研究初步揭示了S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的发生机制,但是不清楚生物体是如何精确调节上述修饰的. 同时在S-谷胱甘肽化修饰过程中,参与修饰的半胱氨酸残基的反应敏感性存在一定的差异,且诱导谷胱甘肽化修饰的因素也存在争[75]. 由于S-谷胱甘肽化和S-亚硝基化还可竞争性地结合共同的修饰位点,如何进一步提高和改善检测的敏感度和特异性,减少假阳性也是S-谷胱甘肽化修饰研究的重要方向.

    值得注意的是,S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的生理意义以及靶标仍然是今后重要的研究方向. 虽然大多数体外实验研究已经证实了S-谷胱甘肽化蛋白的功能,但其最有说服性的数据必须通过研究细胞自身环境中的谷胱甘肽化蛋白的功能来获[2,4]. 因此,结合遗传学的研究将能进一步阐明S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的生物学功能. 必须指出的是,尽管半胱氨酸点突变将有助于研究谷胱甘肽化修饰对靶蛋白功能的影响,但是该方法不能解决同一蛋白质中多个半胱氨酸残基所发生的重叠修饰问[2,76],因此构建不同半胱氨酸位点的组合突变将是一个要注意的问题. 相信随着新的S-谷胱甘肽化靶标以及作用机制的解析,不仅有助于我们对S-谷胱甘肽化修饰的认知,而且也可以为动物和人类疾病的治疗以及提高植物耐/抗逆性提供理论依据.

    Tel: 025-84396542, E-mail: wbshenh@njau.edu.cn

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苏久厂

机 构:南京农业大学生命科学学院,南京210095

Affiliation:College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China

聂阳

机 构:南京农业大学生命科学学院,南京210095

Affiliation:College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China

李龙娜

机 构:南京农业大学生物学实验教学中心,南京 210095

Affiliation:Laboratory Center of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China

沈文飚

机 构:南京农业大学生命科学学院,南京210095

Affiliation:College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China

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实验材料靶蛋白修饰蛋白的功能修饰位点参考文献
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鼠(Mus musculus)肌酸激酶降低肌酸激酶活性C283[45]
兔(Oryctolagus cuniculus)肌动蛋白影响聚合速率及结合原肌球蛋白的协调性C374[46]
人(Homo sapiens)钙结合蛋白保护胰腺钙b细胞免于死亡C187[43]
鼠(Mus musculus)组织蛋白酶K提高组织蛋白酶K活性C25[47]
人(Homo sapiens)脂肪酸结合蛋白提高脂肪酸结合蛋白的水平/[48]
人(Homo sapiens)热休克蛋白60下调热休克蛋白60水平/[48]
人(Homo sapiens)细胞凋亡蛋白酶3调控β-细胞凋亡信号C22[49]
鼠(Mus musculus)磷酸甘油醛脱氢酶抑制磷酸甘油醛脱氢酶活性C149[50]
人(Homo sapiens)血红蛋白谷胱甘肽化蛋白含量升高C93[51]
鼠(Mus musculus)肌动蛋白降低聚合速率及结合原肌球蛋白的协调性C374[52]
兔(Oryctolagus cuniculus)钙释放通道受体蛋白提高钙离子释放速率,减少钙离子流失C3635[53]
鼠(Mus musculus)线粒体酶复合体Ⅰ提高线粒体内超氧化物的形成C85,C86[54]
牛(Bos taurus)线粒体酶复合体Ⅰ下调线粒体酶复合体Ⅰ的活性/[55]
鼠(Mus musculus)线粒体酶复合体Ⅱ提高电子转运效率,减少电子流失C90[56]
兔(Oryctolagus cuniculus)内质网钙ATP酶提高肌内质网钙三磷酸腺苷酶活性C674[57]
鼠(Mus musculus)α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶抑制α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶活性/[58,59]
鼠(Mus musculus)Ras蛋白提高蛋白质的合成/[57]
鼠(Mus musculus)Ras蛋白

提高Ras和Raf的结合以及提高蛋白激酶(ERK)

活性

C118[60]
牛(Bos taurus)Ras蛋白提高Ras的酶活性C118[61]
牛(Bos taurus)Ras蛋白提高ERK和Akt的瞬时磷酸化C118[62]
鼠(Mus musculus)蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸化酶1B抑制蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸化酶活性/[63]
兔(Oryctolagus cuniculus)3-磷酸甘油醛脱氢酶酶活性被抑制

C150,

C154

[20]
鼠(Mus musculus)一氧化氮合酶抑制一氧化氮合酶活性/[14]
鼠(Mus musculus)白介素1β维持了生物体内白介素1β的生物活性C188[5]
鼠(Mus musculus)丙酮酸脱氢酶提高丙酮酸脱氢酶活性/[15]
鼠(Mus musculus)肌钙蛋白提高对钙离子的敏感性C134[64]
鼠(Mus musculus)腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶激活蛋白激酶活性/[34]
鼠(Mus musculus)α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶提高α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶活性/[16]
鼠(Mus musculus)Keap1蛋白激活Nrf2并提高谷胱甘肽s-转移酶基因的表达/[65]
人(Homo sapiens)L-丝束蛋白影响细胞吞噬作用C460[66]
人(Homo sapiens)胱硫醚-β-合酶提高胱硫醚-β-合酶活性C346[67]

鼠(Mus musculus)

有丝分裂原/细胞外信号

调节激酶激酶1

抑制了激酶的催化活性

C1238

[68]

鼠(Mus musculus)丙酮酸脱氢酶提高丙酮酸脱氢酶活性/[15]
鼠(Mus musculus)肌钙蛋白提高对钙离子的敏感性C134[64]
鼠(Mus musculus)腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶激活蛋白激酶活性/[34]
鼠(Mus musculus)α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶提高α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶活性/[16]
鼠(Mus musculus)Keap1蛋白激活Nrf2并提高谷胱甘肽s-转移酶基因的表达/[65]
人(Homo sapiens)L-丝束蛋白影响细胞吞噬作用C460[66]
人(Homo sapiens)胱硫醚-β-合酶提高胱硫醚-β-合酶活性C346[67]

鼠(Mus musculus)

有丝分裂原/细胞外信号

调节激酶激酶1

抑制了激酶的催化活性

C1238

[68]

物种蛋白质名称修饰的功能修饰位点参考文献

拟南芥

(Arabidopsis thaliana)

磷酸丙糖异构酶

抑制了磷酸丙糖异构酶的活性

/

[19]

拟南芥

(Arabidopsis thaliana)

醛缩酶

/

/

[19]

拟南芥

(Arabidopsis thaliana)

脱氢抗坏血酸还原酶

抑制了脱氢抗坏血酸还原酶的活性

C6

[69]

拟南芥

(Arabidopsis thaliana)

硫氧还原蛋白f1

降低了磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸羧化酶和

磷酸甘油醛脱氢酶的活性

C60

[35]

大豆(Glycine max)蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸酶抑制了蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸酶的活性C78,C176[70]
蓝藻 (Cyanobacteria)过氧化物酶//[40]
蓝藻 (Cyanobacteria)3-磷酸甘油酸脱氢酶//[40]

基孔肯雅病毒

(Chikungunya fever)

非结构蛋白2(nsP2)

提高非结构蛋白2活性

C175,C214, C313,C462, C698,C755

[25]

HEK293细胞

干扰素调节因子3

调控IRF3-CBP相互作用,

同时激活IFN β信号通路

C222,C347

C289,C371

[41]

图1 蛋白质S-谷胱甘肽化的机[2,3]

Fig. 1 Mechanisms of protein S-glutathionylation[2,3]

图2 谷氧还蛋白介导的去谷胱甘肽化修饰机[1,3]

Fig. 2 Glutaredoxin-induced mechanism of deglutathionylation[1,3]

表1 细胞系及动物体内谷胱甘肽化蛋白的鉴定结果

Table 1 Identified results of S-glutathionylated proteins in cell lines and animals

表1 细胞系及动物体内谷胱甘肽化蛋白的鉴定结果

Table 1 Identified results of S-glutathionylated proteins in cell lines and animals

表2 植物、微生物以及病毒谷胱甘肽化蛋白的鉴定

Table 2 Identification of S-glutathionylated proteins in plants,microorganism and virus

image /

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